Nationalism in Europe

(a) Giuseppe Mazzini: An Italian revolutionary born in Genoa in 1807. He was a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. He founded two underground societies: Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. He believed God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour: The Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

(c) The Greek War of Independence: An event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century. The struggle for independence began in 1821. The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 finally recognized Greece as an independent nation.

(d) Frankfurt Parliament: In 1848, a large number of political associations came together in Frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to the Church of St. Paul to draft a constitution for a German nation. However, it was opposed by the monarchy and military and was eventually disbanded.

(e) Role of Women: Women formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and took part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage (voting rights) during the election of the Assembly.

The French revolutionaries introduced several measures to create a collective identity:

• La Patrie & Le Citoyen: The ideas of ‘the fatherland’ and ‘the citizen’ emphasized a united community enjoying equal rights.
• New Flag: A new French tricolour was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
• National Assembly: The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• Centralized Administration: A centralized administrative system was put in place with uniform laws for all citizens.
• Language: Regional dialects were discouraged, and French became the common language of the nation.

Marianne (France): She represented the French Republic. Her characteristics were drawn from Liberty and the Republic—the red cap, the tricolour, and the cockade. Her statues were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity.

Germania (Germany): She became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

• Middle-Class Attempt (1848): Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans who tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state in 1848. This was suppressed by the monarchy and military.
• Prussia Takes the Lead: From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.
• Role of Otto von Bismarck: He was the architect of this process, using the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Three Wars: Three wars over seven years—with Austria, Denmark, and France—ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
• Proclamation (1871): In January 1871, the Prussian King, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Napoleon introduced the Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code), which brought the following changes:

• Abolition of Privileges: Did away with all privileges based on birth.
• Equality: Established equality before the law.
• Property Rights: Secured the right to property.
• Feudal System: Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
• Guild Restrictions: In towns, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.

1. Geographic and Ethnic Variation: The Balkans was a region of intense geographic and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, etc. The inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.

2. Ottoman Disintegration: A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the spread of romantic nationalism made the region explosive.

3. Jealousy and Power Struggle: The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of others.

4. Big Power Rivalry: Matters were complicated because the Balkans became the scene of big power rivalry (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary) over trade and colonies, eventually leading to the First World War.