Changing Cultural Traditions

The period of the Renaissance saw a passionate revival of several classical elements:

• Artistic Realism: Sculptors like Donatello studied ancient Roman statues to understand human anatomy, leading to lifelike figures (“The David”).
• Architecture: Architects revived the classical style—using domes, columns, and arches inspired by Roman ruins—marking a break from the medieval Gothic style.
• Literature & Philosophy: Scholars (Humanists) revisited ancient Greek and Latin texts (Plato, Aristotle, Cicero) to study grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and moral philosophy, emphasizing human potential over religious dogma.
• Legal Systems: Roman law became a primary subject of study in universities like Padua and Bologna.

While distinct, both styles shared influences and features:

• Common Elements: Both styles utilized large domes, high arches, and pillar-supported courtyards. The magnificent dome of Florence Cathedral (Brunelleschi) shares engineering principles with Islamic domes.
• Decoration: Islamic architecture focused on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and arabesque designs (avoiding human figures), whereas Italian architecture emphasized classical proportions, statues, and realistic frescoes depicting human forms.
• Influence: Many historians argue that Italian architecture was influenced by Byzantine and Islamic styles brought back by traders and crusaders.

Italian towns were the birthplace of Humanism due to unique conditions:

• Political Freedom: Cities like Florence, Venice, and Genoa were independent republics. The citizens felt a sense of civic pride and liberty similar to ancient Greek city-states.
• Economic Wealth: As hubs of trade, they had a wealthy merchant class (like the Medicis) who patronized arts and learning, bypassing the church’s control.
• Physical Legacy: The ruins of Ancient Rome were physically present in Italy, serving as a constant reminder of their glorious imperial past and inspiring scholars to revive it.
• Universities: Italy was home to Europe’s oldest universities (Padua, Bologna), which were centers of legal and secular study.

• Venice (Republicanism): Venice was a republic governed by a wealthy merchant oligarchy. The head of state (Doge) was elected, and power lay with the Great Council. They valued civic liberty and stability over hereditary rule.
• France (Absolute Monarchy): Contemporary France was a feudal monarchy moving towards absolutism. The King held supreme power, claiming a divine right to rule. Society was strictly divided into the Three Orders (Clergy, Nobility, Peasants), with little political voice for the common people or merchants.

Humanism was a cultural movement that shifted focus from the divine to the human experience:

• Anthropocentrism: It emphasized the dignity and potential of man. Humanists believed individuals could shape their own lives through free will, rather than being mere pawns of fate or God.
• Secularism: While not rejecting religion, humanists valued secular subjects—history, ethics, rhetoric, and poetry—believing they were essential for a civilized citizen.
• Critical Thinking: It encouraged questioning established authorities (like the Church) and relying on reason and observation.
• Individualism: There was a new focus on individual achievement, fame, and skill, contrasting with the collective identity of the Middle Ages.

By the 17th century, the European worldview had transformed radically:

• Scientific Revolution: The geocentric view (Earth at the center) was replaced by the heliocentric model (Sun at the center) proposed by Copernicus and Galileo. The universe was now seen as vast and governed by mechanical laws, not just divine will.
• Geographical Expansion: The “discovery” of the Americas proved that the world was larger than previously thought. It shattered the classical geography of Ptolemy and opened new horizons for trade and colonization.
• Questioning Authority: The printing press and the Reformation had broken the Church’s monopoly on truth. People began to rely more on scientific observation (empiricism) and individual reason (rationalism) rather than accepting biblical or Aristotelian dogma blindly.
• Human Anatomy: Thanks to Vesalius and others, the understanding of the human body moved from superstition to scientific accuracy.