Learning

Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience.
Distinguishing Features:

• Relatively Permanent: It must be sustained over time (unlike temporary changes due to fatigue, drugs, or illness).
• Experience-Based: It results from practice or interaction with the environment, distinguishing it from biological maturation.
• Inferred Process: Learning occurs inside the mind; we only see the result (performance).

In Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov), learning occurs through the association of two stimuli:

• A Neutral Stimulus (e.g., Bell) is paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (e.g., Food) that naturally causes a response (Salivation).
• After repeated pairings, the organism associates the Bell with Food.
• Eventually, the Bell alone triggers the response (Conditioned Response), demonstrating learning by S-S (Stimulus-Stimulus) association.

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) is learning in which behaviour is strengthened or weakened by its consequences (rewards or punishments).
Influencing Factors:

• Type of Reinforcement: Positive (adding a pleasant stimulus) vs. Negative (removing an unpleasant one).
• Schedule of Reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement leads to fast learning but fast extinction. Partial/Intermittent reinforcement leads to slower learning but greater resistance to extinction.
• Delay: The shorter the delay between the action and the reinforcement, the stronger the learning.

This is supported by Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura).

• Children learn social behaviours (aggression, altruism, manners) by watching and imitating Models (parents, teachers).
• Vicarious Reinforcement: If the child sees the model being rewarded for a behaviour, they are more likely to imitate it.
• Process: Attention $\rightarrow$ Retention $\rightarrow$ Motor Reproduction $\rightarrow$ Motivation.

Verbal learning involves learning words and symbols. Common laboratory procedures include:

• Paired-Associate Learning: Learning pairs of items (e.g., Foreign language words: “Dog – Chien”). The first word acts as a stimulus for the second.
• Serial Learning: Learning a list of items in a specific order (e.g., The alphabet, digits of a phone number).
• Free Recall: Learning a list and recalling items in any order (reveals how memory organizes info).

Cognitive learning emphasizes internal mental processes.

• Insight Learning (Kohler): Sudden realization of a solution to a problem (“Aha!” moment). Example: A chimpanzee stacking boxes to reach bananas.
• Latent Learning (Tolman): Learning that remains hidden until it is needed. Example: A rat learning a maze without reward but running it quickly once food is introduced (Cognitive Map).

A Skill is the ability to perform a complex task with proficiency and ease (e.g., typing, driving).
Stages (Fitts & Posner):

1. Cognitive Stage: Learner understands the task instructions. Performance requires high attention; errors are frequent.
2. Associative Stage: Learner practices and links components. Errors decrease; speed increases.
3. Autonomous Stage: Performance becomes automatic and requires minimal conscious attention.

Generalisation	Discrimination
Responding similarly to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.	Responding only to the specific original stimulus and inhibiting response to similar ones.
Example: A child afraid of a white rabbit also fears a white cat.	Example: A child afraid of a dog learns not to fear a toy dog.

Motivation energizes the organism to act.

• Without the desire to reach a goal (e.g., hunger, curiosity, approval), an organism will not engage in the behaviour required to learn.
• It determines the intensity and persistence of learning efforts.

Preparedness refers to the biological predisposition to learn certain associations more easily than others for survival.
Example: It is much easier to condition a fear of snakes or heights (evolutionary threats) than a fear of flowers or chairs.

Learning disabilities (e.g., Dyslexia, Dyscalculia) are neurological, not due to low intelligence. Signs include:

• Difficulty reading or reversing letters (p/q, b/d).
• Poor motor coordination or spatial orientation.
• Difficulty following multiple instructions.
• Severe discrepancy between potential (IQ) and actual academic performance.

Comparison of reinforcement strategies in daily life:

Behaviour	Parental Reinforcement	Teacher Reinforcement	Concept
Academic Score	Promising a new phone/bike.	Giving a Gold Star or Certificate.	Positive Reinforcement (Tangible vs Symbolic)
Discipline	“If you clean your room, no dishwashing today.”	“If the class is quiet, no extra homework.”	Negative Reinforcement (Removal of aversive stimulus)
Bad Behaviour	Scolding or grounding (Time-out).	Detention or sending to the Principal.	Punishment
Social Skills	Hugging or verbal praise (“I’m proud”).	Public praise in front of the class.	Social Reinforcement
Consistency	Often inconsistent (based on mood).	Usually structured/consistent.	Schedule of Reinforcement