Human Memory

Memory is conceptualized as a process consisting of three independent but interrelated stages:

• Encoding: The first stage where incoming information (from senses) is recorded and registered in a way that it can be processed by the memory system. It is like typing data into a computer.
• Storage: The process of retaining or holding the encoded information over a period of time. It is like saving a file on the hard drive.
• Retrieval: The process of locating and bringing stored information to awareness when required. It is like opening the saved file.

According to the Stage Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin):

System	Capacity	Duration	Function
Sensory Memory	Very large	Very short (< 1 sec)	Registers exact replica of sensory input (Iconic/Echoic).
Short-Term Memory (STM)	Limited (7 $\pm$ 2 items)	Brief (up to 30 secs)	Holds info we are currently working on. Requires attention.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)	Unlimited	Permanent	Storehouse of all knowledge and experiences.

Rehearsal is how info moves from STM to LTM.

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Simply repeating the information over and over (rote learning). It maintains info in STM but is weak for transferring to LTM.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new information with existing knowledge in LTM. It involves understanding meaning and creating associations, making it highly effective for long-term retention.

These are types of Long-Term Memory (LTM).

Declarative Memory	Procedural Memory
Memory for facts and events (Knowing ‘What’).	Memory for skills and actions (Knowing ‘How’).
Can be verbally described.	Hard to describe; demonstrated through performance.
Subtypes: Episodic (Personal experiences) and Semantic (General knowledge).	Examples: Riding a bike, typing, tying shoelaces.

Forgetting is the failure to retrieve stored information. Major theories include:

• Trace Decay: Memory traces (engrams) in the brain fade away over time due to disuse.
• Interference: New or old information blocks the recall of other information.
• Retrieval Failure: The memory exists, but retrieval cues are missing (Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon).

• Retrieval Failure: The information is available in LTM but not accessible at the moment because the correct cue is missing. If the right cue appears, recall occurs.
• Interference: The information is blocked or confused by other information.
  – Proactive Interference: Old learning hinders new learning.
  – Retroactive Interference: New learning hinders recall of old learning.

Mnemonics are strategies or techniques used to improve memory by organizing information and creating associations.

Plan to Improve Memory:

• Method of Loci: Associate items you want to remember with physical locations in a familiar place (e.g., placing grocery items in different rooms of your house).
• Chunking: Grouping smaller bits of info into larger, meaningful units (e.g., remembering a phone number as 987-654-3210 instead of 10 separate digits).
• First-Letter Technique: Using acronyms (e.g., VIBGYOR for rainbow colors).
• Deep Processing: Focus on the meaning rather than just the sound or visual shape of words.

(Guidance for Student Project)
The Experiment: You and a family member recall the same event (e.g., a past birthday or vacation).
Outcome: You will likely find significant differences in details.
Reasoning (Bartlett’s Theory):

• Memory is Constructive, not reproductive. We do not play back video tapes.
• We rebuild memories based on our schemas (past knowledge), beliefs, and current mood.
• Discrepancies occur because each person focuses on different aspects and fills in gaps (reconstruction) differently.