Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones

The Harappan diet was diverse, relying on a mix of agriculture, animal husbandry, and hunting.

• Plant Products: Archaeologists have found charred grains of wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame. Millets were common in Gujarat sites, while rice was relatively rare.
• Animal Products: Bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig suggest domestication. Bones of wild species like boar, deer, and gharial indicate hunting.

Providers:
The food supply chain involved distinct groups: Agriculturalists/Peasants cultivated the crops; Pastoralists managed the livestock herds; and Hunter-Gatherers or fishing communities provided wild game and riverine resources to the urban centers.

Archaeologists generally use two methods to identify social stratification:

1. Study of Burials: While most burials were simple pits, differences were noted in the construction (some lined with bricks) and grave goods. Some graves contained pottery and ornaments, indicating status, though precious items were rarely buried with the dead.
2. Artifact Classification (Utilitarian vs. Luxury): Objects are classified as ‘utilitarian’ (daily use items made of stone/clay, like querns and needles) or ‘luxuries’ (rare items made of non-local materials like faience).

Differences Noticed: The wealthy elite likely lived in large cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, where hoards of gold and faience were concentrated. Smaller settlements rarely yield such luxury items, indicating a clear economic divide.

Yes, the drainage system is a definitive indicator of advanced town planning.
Reasons:

• Grid Layout: The streets with drains were laid out first, and houses were built alongside them. Roads intersected at right angles.
• Connectivity: Every house had at least one wall along a street to allow domestic waste water to flow into the street drain.
• Engineering: Drains were made of burnt bricks set in gypsum mortar and were covered with loose bricks for cleaning. Soak pits and cesspools were installed to prevent solid waste from clogging the flow.

This uniformity across the city proves that the settlement was planned and executed by a central authority before construction began.

Materials:

• Stones: Carnelian (red), jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite.
• Metals: Copper, bronze, and gold.
• Others: Shell, faience, and terracotta.

Process (Carnelian Beads): The beautiful red color of carnelian was achieved by firing the yellowish raw material at various stages. First, rough nodules were chipped into shape. They were then finely flaked to the final form. The process concluded with grinding, polishing, and drilling. Specialized drills found at Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira indicate these were major craft centers.

Description: The figure shows a skeletal burial in a pit. The body is placed in a North-South orientation in a supine position (lying on the back).
Objects: There is a cluster of pottery and earthen vessels placed near the head and feet of the skeleton, suggesting a belief in provisions for the afterlife.
Artifacts on Body: There appear to be bangles or ornaments on the left arm.
Sex Determination: While bangles might suggest a female, Harappan men also wore ornaments. Therefore, artifacts alone are not definitive. Archaeologists usually determine sex by analyzing the bone structure, specifically the pelvic girdle (which is wider in women for child-bearing), rather than relying solely on grave goods.

Mohenjodaro is the finest example of Harappan urbanism.
1. The Citadel: A raised, fortified area containing public structures like the Great Bath (a watertight tank for ritual bathing) and the Warehouse.
2. The Lower Town: The residential area followed a grid pattern. Houses were centered around a courtyard, which was the hub of activities like cooking and weaving.
3. Privacy & Sanitation: Uniquely, ground-floor walls had no windows facing the street to maintain privacy. Every house had its own paved bathroom connected to the street drains, and many had private wells (over 700 wells were found in Mohenjodaro alone).

Craft production required clay, stone, wood, metal, and shell. These were obtained via three methods:
1. Local Availability: Clay was locally available for pottery and terracotta.
2. Specific Settlements: Harappans established settlements near resource sources. For example, Nageshwar and Balakot were established near the coast for shell; Shortughai (Afghanistan) for Lapis Lazuli; and Lothal for carnelian.
3. Expeditions & Trade: They sent expeditions to the Khetri region (Rajasthan) for copper and South India for gold. Long-distance trade existed with Oman (for copper) and Mesopotamia, where Harappan seals and weights have been found.

Archaeologists reconstruct the past by piecing together material evidence.
1. Recovering Artifacts: Excavations yield pottery, tools, seals, and structural remains.
2. Classification: Finds are classified by material (stone, clay, metal) or function (utilitarian vs. ritual).
3. Using Analogy: They compare ancient artifacts with modern-day objects (e.g., comparing ancient querns to modern grinding stones) to understand their use.
4. Context: Where an object is found (grave, house, or drain) helps determine its significance. However, interpreting religious beliefs (like the “Proto-Shiva” seal or “Mother Goddess” figurines) is often speculative and difficult.

The uniformity in Harappan artifacts suggests a strong central authority, though the nature of the “ruler” is debated.
Functions:

• Standardization: Rulers likely enforced the standardized ratio of bricks (1:2:4) and the system of weights across vast distances.
• Town Planning: The layout of planned cities and drainage systems required centralized decision-making.
• Labor Mobilization: Building massive platforms, walls, and the Great Bath required organizing a large labor force.
• Strategic Settlements: Establishing settlements near specific raw materials (like Shortughai for lapis lazuli) implies strategic economic planning by a ruling class.