Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement

Mahatma Gandhi identified with the common people through his lifestyle, language, and actions:

1. Attire: Unlike other nationalist leaders who wore western suits or traditional Indian bandhgalas, Gandhi abandoned western clothing for a simple dhoti or loincloth. This symbolized his solidarity with the poorest of the poor.
2. Lifestyle: He lived a frugal life, spent part of each day working on the charkha (spinning wheel), and undertook manual labor, breaking the social stigma associated with it.
3. Language: He spoke in the mother tongue (Hindustani) rather than English, making his message accessible to the masses.
4. Approachability: He travelled in third-class railway carriages and stayed in villages, making himself physically accessible to ordinary Indians.

Peasants revered Mahatma Gandhi not just as a political leader but as a messiah or a “Mahatma” (Great Soul) with miraculous powers.

1. Miraculous Powers: Rumors spread that he had been sent by the King to redress the grievances of farmers and that he had the power to overrule all local officials.
2. Divine Justice: Stories circulated that those who opposed him suffered personal tragedies (like houses falling or crops failing), while his followers were rewarded.
3. “Gandhi Baba”: He was affectionately called “Gandhi Baba” or “Maharaj.” Peasants believed he would end the exploitation by zamindars and restore a utopian world (Ram Rajya) where land would be returned to the tillers and taxes reduced.

The salt laws became a focal point because salt was an indispensable commodity for every household, yet its production was a state monopoly.

1. Universal Grievance: Salt was essential for food and health. The British government not only monopolized its manufacture but also taxed it heavily (the tax was 14 times its value).
2. Oppression of the Poor: The tax hit the poor the hardest. Even though salt was readily available along the coast, people were forced to buy expensive government salt and were forbidden from collecting natural salt.
3. Symbol of Swaraj: Gandhi saw salt as a powerful symbol that could unite the nation across caste and religious lines. Breaking the salt law was a simple, non-violent way for every Indian to defy British authority and assert their right to their own natural resources.

Newspapers are a crucial source because they provide a contemporary record of public opinion and political events.

1. Diverse Perspectives: They were published in English and various vernacular languages (like Kesari in Marathi, Harijan by Gandhi), reflecting regional and ideological diversity.
2. Tracking the Movement: They tracked the day-to-day progress of movements like the Salt March, reporting speeches, arrests, and public reaction.
3. Colonial View vs. Nationalist View: While Indian newspapers spread nationalist ideas, international press (like Time magazine) provides an outsider’s view—initially skeptical of Gandhi but later admiring.
4. Shaping Opinion: They did not just report news but shaped it, mobilizing public support for the freedom struggle.

The charkha (spinning wheel) was chosen for several symbolic and practical reasons:

1. Economic Self-Reliance: It symbolized Swadeshi—the boycott of foreign goods and the revival of Indian village industries. It was a direct challenge to the economic machinery of the British Empire, which relied on selling Manchester cloth in India.
2. Dignity of Labor: By spinning daily, the elite nationalist leaders broke the barrier between manual labor and intellectual work, promoting social equality.
3. Unity: It was a tool that could be used by anyone—rich or poor, men or women, upper caste or Dalit—creating a sense of shared national duty.
4. Simplicity: It represented a rejection of modern, industrial machinery and a return to a simpler, self-sufficient village life that Gandhi idealized.

Non-Cooperation was a revolutionary form of protest introduced by Gandhi, based on the idea that British rule survived in India only because of the cooperation of Indians. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule would collapse.

1. Renunciation of Voluntary Association: It began with the surrender of titles and honors bestowed by the British government. This was a symbolic withdrawal of loyalty.

2. Boycott of Institutions: The movement involved the boycott of British-run institutions:

• Students left government schools and colleges.
• Lawyers (like Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das) boycotted the courts.
• Council Elections were boycotted in most provinces.

3. Economic Boycott: There were bonfires of foreign cloth, and picketing of liquor shops. This hit the economic interests of the British hard, with the import of foreign cloth falling drastically.

4. Popular Participation: It expanded into specific local struggles. Peasants in Awadh refused to pay illegal cess. Tribals in Andhra violated forest laws. It transformed the national movement from an elite affair into a mass struggle involving thousands of ordinary people who, for the first time, believed they could challenge the mighty British Raj through peaceful non-compliance.

The Round Table Conferences (specifically the Second one attended by Gandhi in 1931) failed to yield a constitutional solution due to deep internal divisions and British strategy.

1. Challenge to Congress Representation: Gandhi argued that the Congress represented all of India. This claim was contested by three main groups:

• The Muslim League: Jinnah argued that the Congress did not represent Indian Muslims.
• The Princes: They claimed the Congress had no stake in their territories (Princely States).
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: He argued that the Congress (dominated by upper castes) did not represent the Dalits (“Untouchables”).

2. Communal Deadlock: The talks broke down over the issue of separate electorates. While Gandhi opposed separate electorates for Dalits (viewing them as an integral part of Hindu society), Ambedkar insisted on them as a safeguard against caste oppression.

3. British Strategy: The British government exploited these divisions to argue that India was too divided for self-rule. They refused to concede any real power or dominion status, which was the primary demand of the Congress. The conference ended without any agreement on the future constitutional structure, forcing Gandhi to return empty-handed and resume the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Mahatma Gandhi transformed Indian nationalism from an elite, urban phenomenon into a genuine mass movement.

1. Mass Mobilization: Before Gandhi, the Congress was a “middle-class club” of lawyers and doctors. Gandhi brought in the peasants, workers, and artisans. He made them feel that the freedom struggle was *their* struggle. Movements like Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience saw participation from millions.

2. Social Reform as Politics: He broadened the scope of nationalism beyond just political independence. He integrated social issues like the abolition of untouchability, Hindu-Muslim unity, and women’s emancipation into the core political agenda. For him, political freedom was meaningless without social reform.

3. New Methods of Struggle: He introduced Satyagraha (truth-force) and Ahimsa (non-violence). This allowed unarmed masses to fight a powerful empire without fear. It gave them a moral superiority over their oppressors.

4. Organizational Changes: He reorganized the Congress structure. New branches were opened in villages (Praja Mandals). The “anna membership” fee made it affordable for the poor. Provincial committees were reorganized on linguistic lines (rather than artificial British boundaries), making the party more representative of India’s cultural diversity.

Private Letters and Autobiographies: These sources provide a glimpse into the inner world of an individual.

• Letters: They reveal the personal thoughts, doubts, anxieties, and relationships of leaders (like Gandhi’s letters to Nehru). They show the process of decision-making before a public stance is taken. However, even private letters are often written with an awareness that they might be published later.
• Autobiographies: These are retrospective accounts. They tell us what the author wants us to know about their life. They frame their past in a way that fits their current self-image. They are subjective but rich in personal detail.

Difference from Official Accounts: Official accounts (like police reports, secret service files) are written from the perspective of the state.

• Bias of Control: Police reports often view political leaders as “criminals” or “agitators.” For example, reports on the Salt March dismissed Gandhi’s popularity, unable to understand the moral force he commanded.
• Objectivity vs. Subjectivity: Official records aim for factual reporting but are biased by the colonial need to maintain order. Personal writings are subjective but reveal the *motivation* and *ideology* behind actions that official records often miss.