Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns
Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)
Textbook Questions
1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Evidence in Early Historic Cities:
Excavations have revealed artifacts like fine pottery (Northern Black Polished Ware), tools, weapons, vessels, and ornaments made of gold, silver, copper, glass, and ivory. Crucially, we also have textual evidence: inscriptions mention guilds (shrenis) of craftspeople like weavers, scribes, and carpenters who organized production and made donations to religious institutions.
Difference from Harappan Cities:
Difference from Harappan Cities:
- Harappan: Evidence is primarily archaeological (waste materials, unfinished beads, tools found in factories like Chanhudaro). We have no readable texts to identify specific artisans.
- Early Historic: Evidence combines material remains with written records (votive inscriptions) that explicitly name the craftspeople and their organizations, giving us a social identity for the artisans that is missing in Harappan history.
2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.
Around the 6th century BCE, sixteen major states known as Mahajanapadas emerged. Their key features were:
- Political Structure: Most were monarchies ruled by kings (e.g., Magadha, Kosala). Others were Ganas or Sanghas (oligarchies) where power was shared by a group of men (e.g., Vajji).
- Fortification: Each Mahajanapada had a fortified capital city requiring significant resources for maintenance.
- Military & Bureaucracy: Rulers maintained standing armies and a bureaucracy to collect taxes from cultivators, traders, and artisans.
- Dharmasutras: Brahmanas began composing Dharmasutras, laying down norms for rulers (who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas).
3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Ordinary people rarely left inscriptions, so historians use alternative sources:
- Anthologies and Stories: Texts like the Jatakas and the Panchatantra contain stories (like the Gandatindu Jataka) that reflect the plight of subjects under wicked kings.
- Sculptures: Visual art depicting daily life provides glimpses into the clothing, tools, and activities of commoners.
- Votive Inscriptions: Records of donations sometimes mention occupations of ordinary donors like weavers, scribes, and carpenters.
- Material Remains: Archaeological finds of tools, pottery, and household items help reconstruct their material culture.
4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences?
Pandyan Chief (Sangam Text): The gifts include ivory, honey, sandalwood, turmeric, cardamom, pepper, animals, and birds. These are primarily forest produce gathered by hill tribes.
Danguna Village (Vakataka Inscription): The list mentions grass, hides, charcoal, fermentation liquor, salt, and mineral mines. These are agricultural and settled village products or rights granted to the donee.
Differences: The Pandyan list represents a voluntary (or customary) tribute of natural resources by forest dwellers. The Danguna list represents a formal land grant detailing legal rights over settled agricultural produce and tax exemptions.
Danguna Village (Vakataka Inscription): The list mentions grass, hides, charcoal, fermentation liquor, salt, and mineral mines. These are agricultural and settled village products or rights granted to the donee.
Differences: The Pandyan list represents a voluntary (or customary) tribute of natural resources by forest dwellers. The Danguna list represents a formal land grant detailing legal rights over settled agricultural produce and tax exemptions.
5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Epigraphists (scholars who study inscriptions) face several technical challenges:
- Physical Damage: Letters are often faintly engraved, damaged, or missing due to the erosion of stone/metal over centuries.
- Decipherment: The script might be unknown or archaic. Even known scripts like Brahmi evolved over time.
- Language Barriers: Inscriptions are often in Prakrit, Pali, or Tamil varieties that differ from modern forms.
- Contextual Meaning: Words may have specific local meanings that are lost today.
- Bias: Inscriptions were often commissioned by kings to record victories or donations; they rarely record defeats or the sorrows of the common man.
Short Essays (Summarized)
6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
The Mauryan Empire had a vast, centralized administration.
1. Five Political Centers: Pataliputra (capital) and four provincial centers: Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.
2. Military Administration: Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees coordinating the navy, transport, infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants.
3. Dhamma Mahamattas: Special officers appointed by Ashoka to spread the message of Dhamma.
Evidence in Inscriptions: Ashokan edicts explicitly mention the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas and instructions to officials to administer justice impartially. They also reflect the unified communication system across the empire through the placement of edicts along trade routes.
1. Five Political Centers: Pataliputra (capital) and four provincial centers: Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.
2. Military Administration: Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees coordinating the navy, transport, infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants.
3. Dhamma Mahamattas: Special officers appointed by Ashoka to spread the message of Dhamma.
Evidence in Inscriptions: Ashokan edicts explicitly mention the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas and instructions to officials to administer justice impartially. They also reflect the unified communication system across the empire through the placement of edicts along trade routes.
7. Discuss the statement: “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.”
D.C. Sircar’s statement highlights the immense value of inscriptions as historical sources.
1. Political History: They record lineages, names of kings (e.g., Ashoka as “Piyadassi”), and conquests (e.g., Samudragupta’s Prayaga Prashasti).
2. Economy: Land grant inscriptions (like the one about Danguna) reveal land ownership, tax systems, and agrarian relations.
3. Religion: They document the spread of Buddhism (Ashokan edicts) and the support for Brahmanical institutions through grants (Agrahara).
4. Social Life: Votive inscriptions list donors from various classes—queens, merchants, and weavers—giving insight into social structures and the status of women (e.g., Satavahana matronymics).
1. Political History: They record lineages, names of kings (e.g., Ashoka as “Piyadassi”), and conquests (e.g., Samudragupta’s Prayaga Prashasti).
2. Economy: Land grant inscriptions (like the one about Danguna) reveal land ownership, tax systems, and agrarian relations.
3. Religion: They document the spread of Buddhism (Ashokan edicts) and the support for Brahmanical institutions through grants (Agrahara).
4. Social Life: Votive inscriptions list donors from various classes—queens, merchants, and weavers—giving insight into social structures and the status of women (e.g., Satavahana matronymics).
8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Post-Mauryan rulers adopted new strategies to claim high status:
1. Divine Kingship: The Kushanas (c. 1st century BCE–1st century CE) projected themselves as god-like. They built colossal statues of themselves in shrines and adopted titles like Devaputra (Son of God), likely inspired by Chinese rulers.
2. Grand Titles: Gupta rulers used pompous titles like Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) to assert dominance over subordinates (Samantas).
3. Prashastis: Poets composed eulogies (Prashastis) praising the king’s divine qualities. For example, Harishena described Samudragupta as a god living on earth.
1. Divine Kingship: The Kushanas (c. 1st century BCE–1st century CE) projected themselves as god-like. They built colossal statues of themselves in shrines and adopted titles like Devaputra (Son of God), likely inspired by Chinese rulers.
2. Grand Titles: Gupta rulers used pompous titles like Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) to assert dominance over subordinates (Samantas).
3. Prashastis: Poets composed eulogies (Prashastis) praising the king’s divine qualities. For example, Harishena described Samudragupta as a god living on earth.
9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
From c. 600 BCE to 600 CE, agriculture underwent significant changes to meet rising taxes and population demand:
1. Iron Ploughshare: Its use spread in the fertile Ganga valley, allowing for deeper ploughing and better yields.
2. Transplantation: The technique of transplanting paddy dramatically increased rice production.
3. Irrigation: There was a systematic shift towards artificial irrigation using wells, tanks, and canals. The repair of the Sudarshana Lake by Rudradaman I is a prime example.
4. Land Grants: Rulers granted land to Brahmanas and religious institutions to extend agriculture into new, uncultivated areas.
1. Iron Ploughshare: Its use spread in the fertile Ganga valley, allowing for deeper ploughing and better yields.
2. Transplantation: The technique of transplanting paddy dramatically increased rice production.
3. Irrigation: There was a systematic shift towards artificial irrigation using wells, tanks, and canals. The repair of the Sudarshana Lake by Rudradaman I is a prime example.
4. Land Grants: Rulers granted land to Brahmanas and religious institutions to extend agriculture into new, uncultivated areas.