Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)
Textbook Questions
1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists? Give reasons for your answer.
Yes, the ideas were fundamentally different.
Upanishadic Thinkers: They focused on the concept of atman (individual soul) and Brahman (universal soul). They believed in the possibility of liberation (moksha) through knowledge and righteous action (karma), implying that human agency matters.
Fatalists (Ajivikas): Led by Makkhali Gosala, they believed that everything is predetermined by destiny (niyati). Human action cannot change one’s fate or alter happiness and sorrow.
Materialists (Lokayatas): Led by Ajita Kesakambalin, they rejected the existence of the soul, karma, and the afterlife. They argued that a human is made of four elements which dissolve upon death, making almsgiving and rituals meaningless. Thus, while Upanishadic thinkers emphasized the spiritual self, fatalists denied free will, and materialists denied the spiritual realm entirely.
Upanishadic Thinkers: They focused on the concept of atman (individual soul) and Brahman (universal soul). They believed in the possibility of liberation (moksha) through knowledge and righteous action (karma), implying that human agency matters.
Fatalists (Ajivikas): Led by Makkhali Gosala, they believed that everything is predetermined by destiny (niyati). Human action cannot change one’s fate or alter happiness and sorrow.
Materialists (Lokayatas): Led by Ajita Kesakambalin, they rejected the existence of the soul, karma, and the afterlife. They argued that a human is made of four elements which dissolve upon death, making almsgiving and rituals meaningless. Thus, while Upanishadic thinkers emphasized the spiritual self, fatalists denied free will, and materialists denied the spiritual realm entirely.
2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.
The core philosophy of Jainism, established by Mahavira, revolves around the idea that the entire world is animated:
- Ahimsa (Non-violence): Since even stones, water, and wind have life, one should not injure any living being. This is the central doctrine.
- Karma and Rebirth: The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped by karma. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma.
- Renunciation: Monastic existence is essential for salvation. Jaina monks and nuns take five great vows: to abstain from killing, stealing, and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.
3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.
While many ancient sites like Amravati were destroyed, Sanchi survived largely due to the vigilance and funding of the Begums of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum.
- Funding Preservation: They provided money for the preservation of the ancient site.
- Preventing Removal: When French and English officials wanted to take the beautifully carved eastern gateway to their museums, the Begums permitted them to take plaster-cast copies instead, keeping the original at the site.
- Supporting Scholarship: Sultan Jehan Begum funded the museum and guesthouse at Sanchi where John Marshall lived and wrote his volumes. She also funded the publication of his books.
4. Read this short inscription and answer:
(a) Dating: Dhanavati dated her inscription using the regnal year of the ruler (“year 33 of maharaja Huvishka”) and the specific season/month (“first month of the hot season on the eighth day”).
(b) Reason for Installation: She installed the image of the Bodhisatta likely to earn religious merit for herself and her family, a common practice in Mahayana Buddhism.
(c) Relatives: She mentions her aunt (mother’s sister) Buddhamita, and her own father and mother.
(d) Text Known: She knew the Tipitaka (the three baskets of Buddhist scripture).
(e) Teacher: She learned the text from the bhikkhu Bala.
(b) Reason for Installation: She installed the image of the Bodhisatta likely to earn religious merit for herself and her family, a common practice in Mahayana Buddhism.
(c) Relatives: She mentions her aunt (mother’s sister) Buddhamita, and her own father and mother.
(d) Text Known: She knew the Tipitaka (the three baskets of Buddhist scripture).
(e) Teacher: She learned the text from the bhikkhu Bala.
5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?
Men and women joined the Buddhist sangha for several reasons:
- Spiritual Liberation: They sought an escape from the cycle of rebirth and suffering (dukkha) to attain nirvana.
- Equality: The sangha offered a space free from the rigid caste hierarchies and social obligations of the time. Within the sangha, all were equal.
- Refuge from Social Roles: For women (like the Theri Mutta), it offered freedom from domestic drudgery and oppressive societal norms.
- Simplicity: The simple lifestyle of a bhikkhu or bhikkhuni, surviving on alms, appealed to those rejecting material complexity.
Short Essays (Summarized)
6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?
Knowledge of Buddhist texts is crucial because Sanchi sculptures often depict stories rather than just religious symbols.
1. Jataka Tales: Many reliefs depict scenes from the Jatakas (stories of the Buddha’s previous lives). For example, the Vessantara Jataka, where a generous prince gives away everything, is carved on the northern gateway. Without the text, this would just look like a generic royal scene.
2. Symbolic Representation: Early Buddhist art used symbols like the empty seat (meditation), the wheel (first sermon), and the stupa (parinirvana) to represent the Buddha. Texts help historians decode these symbols.
3. Popular Beliefs: Some motifs, like the Shalabhanjika (a woman swinging from a tree), are not strictly Buddhist but were integrated from popular folk beliefs about fertility. Texts explain this cultural integration.
1. Jataka Tales: Many reliefs depict scenes from the Jatakas (stories of the Buddha’s previous lives). For example, the Vessantara Jataka, where a generous prince gives away everything, is carved on the northern gateway. Without the text, this would just look like a generic royal scene.
2. Symbolic Representation: Early Buddhist art used symbols like the empty seat (meditation), the wheel (first sermon), and the stupa (parinirvana) to represent the Buddha. Texts help historians decode these symbols.
3. Popular Beliefs: Some motifs, like the Shalabhanjika (a woman swinging from a tree), are not strictly Buddhist but were integrated from popular folk beliefs about fertility. Texts explain this cultural integration.
7. Figs. 4.32 and 4.33 are two scenes from Sanchi. Describe what you see…
Fig. 4.32 (Rural Scene): This scene likely depicts a rural setting. It shows simple hut-like structures with thatched roofs. Animals like cattle are present, and people are engaged in daily activities. The relaxed posture and natural setting suggest a village life, possibly related to a Jataka story set in a forest or village.
Fig. 4.33 (Urban Scene): This scene depicts a fortified city. We see high walls (ramparts) and multi-storeyed buildings with elaborate architecture. People are looking out from balconies. There is a procession with animals (horses/elephants) and a sense of organized activity, which is characteristic of an urban center or a royal capital like Kapilavastu or Kusinagara.
Fig. 4.33 (Urban Scene): This scene depicts a fortified city. We see high walls (ramparts) and multi-storeyed buildings with elaborate architecture. People are looking out from balconies. There is a procession with animals (horses/elephants) and a sense of organized activity, which is characteristic of an urban center or a royal capital like Kapilavastu or Kusinagara.
8. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
The rise of Puranic Hinduism led to the creation of temples to house deities.
1. From Symbols to Human Forms: Unlike early Buddhism, Hinduism depicted deities in human form. Shiva was represented by the Linga but also in human forms (e.g., Nataraja). Vishnu was depicted in his various avatars, such as the Varaha (boar) rescuing the earth.
2. Temple Architecture: The earliest temples were simple square rooms called the Garbhagriha with a single doorway. Over time, a tall structure called the Shikhara was built over the central shrine.
3. Rock-Cut Temples: Elaborate temples were carved out of single rocks, culminating in the massive Kailashnath Temple at Ellora (8th century), which was carved entirely from top to bottom out of a hillside.
1. From Symbols to Human Forms: Unlike early Buddhism, Hinduism depicted deities in human form. Shiva was represented by the Linga but also in human forms (e.g., Nataraja). Vishnu was depicted in his various avatars, such as the Varaha (boar) rescuing the earth.
2. Temple Architecture: The earliest temples were simple square rooms called the Garbhagriha with a single doorway. Over time, a tall structure called the Shikhara was built over the central shrine.
3. Rock-Cut Temples: Elaborate temples were carved out of single rocks, culminating in the massive Kailashnath Temple at Ellora (8th century), which was carved entirely from top to bottom out of a hillside.
9. Discuss how and why stupas were built.
Why: Stupas were burial mounds containing relics (bodily remains or objects used by the Buddha). They were regarded as sacred places representing the Buddha’s parinirvana. Ashoka is said to have distributed relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
How:
How:
- Donations: Construction was funded by donations from kings (Satavahanas), guilds (ivory workers of Vidisha), and ordinary men and women. Inscriptions record their names.
- Structure: The core was unburnt brick, covered with burnt brick. It consisted of the anda (semicircular mound), the harmika (balcony representing abode of gods), and the yashti (mast) topped by a chhatri.
- Decoration: While early stupas were plain, later ones at Sanchi and Amravati were adorned with elaborate stone railings and gateways (toranas) carved with stories.