Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

Historians use the term “integration of cults” to describe the process where distinct religious traditions—the Brahmanical (Great Tradition) and the local/folk (Little Tradition)—interacted and influenced each other. This happened in two ways:

1. Dissemination of Brahmanical ideas: Brahmanas accepted and reworked existing local beliefs into a Puranic framework.
2. Brahmanization of local deities: Local gods and goddesses were identified with major Puranic deities.

Examples:

• Jagannatha at Puri: Originally a local tribal deity represented by a wooden image, he was later identified as a form of Vishnu.
• Goddess Cults: Local deities were equated with wives of principal male deities (e.g., Lakshmi as wife of Vishnu, Parvati as wife of Shiva), integrating them into the mainstream pantheon.

The architecture reflects a blend of Universal Islamic ideals and Local architectural traditions.

Universal Ideals: All mosques share features required for Islamic prayer, such as orientation towards Mecca (qibla), the prayer niche (mihrab), and the pulpit (minbar).

Local Traditions: The building materials and roof styles varied greatly depending on the region:

• Kerala: Mosques were built with Shikhar-like roofs, resembling local temples.
• Bangladesh (Atia Mosque): Used brick, a locally available material, with curvilinear roofs typical of Bengali huts.
• Kashmir (Shah Hamadan Mosque): Built using wood and papier-mache, resembling local cottages, with a spire instead of a dome.

This shows that while the spiritual orientation was universal, the physical construction was deeply local.

Similarities:

• Both were Sufi traditions that emphasized mysticism, love for God, and a simpler path to the divine compared to orthodox clerical Islam.
• Both revered the Prophet Muhammad and often engaged in practices like Ziyarat (pilgrimage).

Differences:

• Ba-shari‘a: These Sufis (like the Chishtis and Suhrawardis) followed the Islamic law (Sharia). They lived in institutionalized hospices (Khanqahs) and maintained some structure in their daily lives and rituals.
• Be-shari‘a: These Sufis (like Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs) deliberately defied the Sharia. They rejected rituals, did not live in Khanqahs, often wandered as ascetics, and engaged in extreme forms of devotion bordering on madness/intoxication with God.

These Bhakti movements challenged the rigid caste hierarchy through their composition and philosophy:

Alvars and Nayanars (Tamil Bhakti):

• They admitted devotees from diverse backgrounds, including “untouchable” castes like the Pulaiyar.
• Their hymns (like the Nalayira Divyaprabandham) were accorded the status of the Vedas, suggesting that spiritual authority was not the monopoly of Brahmans.
• They emphasized that devotion (Bhakti) was superior to high birth.

Virashaivas (Basavanna’s Tradition):

• They were more radical, openly rejecting the caste system and the concept of ritual pollution.
• They questioned the theory of rebirth, which justified caste hierarchy.
• They introduced social practices like post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage, challenging Brahmanical social codes.

Major Teachings of Baba Guru Nanak:

• He advocated Nirguna Bhakti (devotion to a formless God).
• He rejected external practices like sacrifices, ritual baths, and image worship.
• He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine: remembering and repeating the Divine Name (nam-simaran).
• He emphasized the community through the concept of sangat (collective recitation).

Transmission: His teachings were transmitted through hymns composed in the local language (Punjabi). These hymns, called Shabads, were sung in various ragas. His successor, Guru Angad, compiled these compositions in the Gurmukhi script. Later, the fifth Guru, Arjan Dev, compiled them into the Adi Granth, ensuring their preservation.

Sufism was a mystical movement within Islam that emphasized a direct, personal connection with God through love and devotion. Major beliefs and practices included:

1. The Khanqah (Hospice) Life: Sufis organized themselves around a hospice controlled by a teaching master (Shaikh/Pir). This was a center of social life where people from all walks of life—rulers and commoners, Hindus and Muslims—gathered to seek spiritual blessings.

2. The Silsila (Spiritual Chain): Sufi orders were organized into silsilas, signifying a continuous link between the master and disciple, tracing back to the Prophet Muhammad. This established the spiritual authority of the Shaikh.

3. Ziyarat and Barkat: The practice of pilgrimage (Ziyarat) to the tombs of Sufi saints was central. Devotees believed that in death, the saint was united with God and thus possessed immense spiritual power (Barkat) to intercede for them. This evolved into the “cult of the shrine.”

4. Music and Dance (Sama): Sufis believed that music and dance were crucial for inducing spiritual ecstasy and bringing the soul closer to God. The Chishtis, in particular, used Qawwali (mystical music) in their assemblies.

5. Love and Fana: The ultimate goal was Fana (annihilation of the self) in the Beloved (God). They often used romantic metaphors (human love) to describe the intense relationship between the soul and the divine.

Rulers actively sought connections with Bhakti and Sufi traditions primarily for political legitimacy and popular support.

1. Connection with Nayanars (Chola Rulers):

• The Chola kings built splendid temples (like at Chidambaram, Thanjavur) dedicated to Shiva, adorning them with stone and bronze images of popular Nayanar saints.
• This allowed the kings to claim divine support by associating themselves with the popular saints revered by the masses.
• They introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in temples, institutionalizing the Bhakti tradition under royal patronage.

2. Connection with Sufis (Sultans and Mughals):

• Sufi saints like the Chishtis were extremely popular among the common people. Rulers like the Delhi Sultans sought their company to validate their rule, implying that their power was blessed by God’s chosen ones.
• However, the relationship was complex. Rulers sometimes envied the reverence commanded by the Sufis (e.g., the title “Sultan-ul-Mashaikh” for Nizamuddin Auliya suggested a parallel spiritual kingdom).
• The Mughals, particularly Akbar, made frequent pilgrimages to the shrine of Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer. This was often done to celebrate military victories or seek blessings for an heir, publicly demonstrating the Emperor’s humility before the saint.

In both cases, rulers used these connections to bridge the gap between the state and the subjects, as these saints were the true “rulers of the hearts” of the people.

Bhakti and Sufi thinkers adopted local and vernacular languages to democratize religion. Their goal was to make spiritual knowledge accessible to the masses, breaking the monopoly of the elite languages (Sanskrit for Brahmans, Arabic/Persian for Ulema).

1. Rejection of Elite Languages: Traditional religious texts were often in languages common people could not understand. By speaking the “language of the people,” thinkers ensured their message of love and equality resonated instantly.

2. Illustrations of Language Adoption:

• Tamil Bhakti: The Alvars and Nayanars composed hymns in Tamil, which were sung in temples and during processions, creating a shared community identity.
• Virashaivas: Basavanna composed Vachanas (sayings) in simple Kannada, allowing men and women from lower castes to engage with complex theological ideas.
• Guru Nanak: He composed hymns in Punjabi, the language of the region, ensuring his message of Nirguna Bhakti reached the agrarian population of Punjab.
• Chishti Sufis: They conversed in Hindavi, the language of the common folk in North India. Baba Farid composed verses in local dialects, which were later incorporated into the Guru Granth Sahib. Some Sufis also wrote masnavis (long poems) expressing divine love using local human love stories (like Padmavat).
• Bijapur Sufis: They wrote short poems (Dakhani) attributed to women’s daily chores (charkha-nama, lori-nama), weaving spirituality into the domestic sphere.

This linguistic shift was revolutionary, as it validated the cultural identity of the common people and made spirituality an intimate, local experience.

Based on the typical sources found in this chapter (e.g., Vachanas of Basavanna, poems of Karaikkal Ammaiyar, verses of Kabir), the following core ideas emerge:

1. Rejection of Ritualism (Source: Basavanna’s Vachana): Basavanna contrasts the rich who build stone temples with the poor who cannot. He argues that the human body itself is a temple—legs are pillars, the head is the cupola. This expresses the idea that a static temple can fall, but the “moving temple” (the human body/spirit) is eternal. It rejects expensive rituals in favor of personal devotion.

2. Defiance of Social Norms (Source: Karaikkal Ammaiyar): The female Nayanar saint describes herself as a “ghoul” with shriveled skin, rejecting traditional standards of female beauty. This expresses the idea that spiritual power transcends gender and social expectations of beauty. She renounces domestic obligations for asceticism.

3. The Unity of God (Source: Kabir): Kabir uses terms from both Hindu and Islamic traditions (Ram, Allah, Hazrat, Hari) to describe the Ultimate Reality. He argues that God is one, merely called by different names, challenging the communal divides created by religious orthodoxy.

4. Critique of Caste (Source: Alvars/Nayanars): Sources often highlight the devotion of saints from “untouchable” backgrounds (like Nandanar). They express the idea that a high-caste person without devotion is inferior to a low-caste person with intense love for God.

5. Love as the Path (Source: Sufi Poetry): Sufi verses often use the metaphor of a bride waiting for her groom to describe the soul waiting for God. This expresses the religious idea that the relationship with the Divine is one of intense, emotional love, not fear or legalistic obedience.