Change and Development in Rural Society

(i) Why do you think the maliks were able to use the power of the state to advance their own interests?

• The maliks (landlords) belonged to the Dominant Castes. In rural India, caste status and economic power (class) often overlap.
• They had control over land, which gave them wealth. This wealth allowed them to influence political parties and the local administration (police, bureaucracy).
• Because they controlled the “vote banks” of their region, politicians and the state machinery often intervened in their favor rather than protecting the poor.

(ii) Why did labourers have harsh working conditions?

• Lack of Alternatives: The laborers were mostly landless Dalits who had no other source of livelihood except working on the malik’s fields.
• Dominance: The combined effect of social oppression (caste discrimination) and economic exploitation meant they could not bargain for better wages or conditions.
• Bonded Labor: Many were trapped in cycles of debt (Halpati or Jeeta systems), forcing them to work under harsh conditions to repay loans that never ended.

Measures Taken:

• MGNREGA (2005): Guarantees 100 days of wage employment, reducing dependence on local landlords and distress migration.
• Abolition of Bonded Labour Act (1976): Legally banned the practice of forced labor for debt repayment.
• Minimum Wages Act (1948): Sets a baseline for daily wages.

Measures that Should be Taken:

• Portable Social Security: Migrant workers lose ration card benefits when they move. “One Nation, One Ration Card” needs full implementation.
• Strict Enforcement: Laws exist but are often violated by contractors. Stricter monitoring is needed at brick kilns and construction sites.
• Unionisation: The government should facilitate the formation of rural labor unions to improve collective bargaining power.

Agricultural workers, mostly belonging to lower castes, face a “vicious cycle” that prevents mobility:

• Caste Discrimination: In rural areas, Dalits are often excluded from non-farm businesses (like running a tea shop) due to “pollution” norms, restricting them to farm labor.
• Debt Bondage: High-interest loans from moneylenders/landlords consume their entire income, preventing savings or investment in their children’s education.
• Lack of Assets: Being landless, they have no collateral to get bank loans for starting small businesses.
• Seasonal Unemployment: Agriculture work is not available year-round, leading to instability and inability to plan for the future.

The rise of new dominant classes (often called “Bullock Capitalists” or “Gentleman Farmers”) was driven by:

• Land Reforms: The abolition of intermediaries (Zamindars) in the 1950s transferred land rights to the tenant-cultivators (the Shudras/OBCs).
• Green Revolution: These land-owning cultivator castes (like Jats, Yadavs, Kurmis, Vokkaligas, Kammas) benefitted most from modern inputs, subsidies, and high crop yields in the 1960s/70s.
• Diversification: They invested their agricultural surplus into business, transport, contracting, and professional education for their children.

Portrayal in Classic Films (e.g., Mother India, Do Bigha Zamin):

• They portrayed a feudal society dominated by the evil Moneylender (Sukhilala) and the struggling, virtuous peasant.
• Reality Check: Realistic for the 1950s/60s. It captured the pain of debt and the bond with the land perfectly.

Recent Portrayal (e.g., Panchayat – Web Series, Pushpa):

• Modern Rural India: Shows a shift from purely agrarian issues to bureaucratic struggles, local politics (Pradhan-pati culture), and aspiration for city jobs.
• Reality Check: Shows that rural India is no longer isolated; it is connected to the world by mobile phones and bikes, but struggles with unemployment and caste politics remain.

• Who is the Mukadam? The Mukadam is a labor contractor or agent. He is usually from the same village or region as the workers. He lends money to villagers during the lean season (monsoon) and, in return, recruits them to work in cities/kilns to repay the debt.
• Recruitment: It is rarely a direct application. It happens through social networks and advance payments (peshgi).
• Why Migrate?
  • Push Factors: Drought in the home village (e.g., Marathwada, Bundelkhand), lack of local work, and debt.
  • Pull Factors: Cash wages in the city are higher than in the village, offering a chance (often an illusion) of a better life.

• Globalisation of Agriculture: Local fruit sellers now stock apples from Washington (USA) or Fuji (China), Kiwis from New Zealand, and Dragon Fruit from Vietnam.
• Impact on Prices:
  • Initially, imports were luxury items. However, due to free trade agreements, imported apples sometimes flood the market, lowering prices.
  • This hurts local farmers (e.g., in Himachal or Kashmir) because imported fruits often look better (waxed/uniform) even if they don’t taste as good.
  • Competition: Local prices are forced down to compete with cheap imports, reducing the profit margin for Indian farmers.

The “Green Revolution” increased food production but caused severe environmental damage in rural India:

• Declining Water Table: In Punjab and Haryana, free electricity for tubewells has led to over-extraction of groundwater for water-intensive crops like Rice. The water table is dropping by meters every year.
• Salination & Waterlogging: In canal-irrigated areas (like Western UP), excessive watering has brought salts to the surface, turning fertile land into wasteland (Usar land).
• Pesticides: Excessive use of chemicals has entered the food chain (biomagnification). The “Cancer Train” from Bathinda to Bikaner is a tragic example of health impacts on rural populations.
• Loss of Biodiversity: Monoculture (growing only Wheat/Rice) has wiped out traditional millet varieties and pulses that were more eco-friendly.